Richard Allen was a minister, educator, writer and one of the USAs most active and influential black leaders. He was born into slavery on February 14th 1760 in Delaware. As a child he was sold to Stokley Sturgis. He began to attend the local Methodist Society which welcomed slaves and free blacks. He taught himself to read and write. He joined the Methodist at 17 and began evangelizing which attracted criticism from local slave owners. He and his brother worked hard for Sturgis so no one could say his slaves did not do well because of their religion. The Revd. Freeborn Garrettson, who had freed his own slaves, came to preach in Delaware in 1775. Stugis became convinced slavery was wrong and gave his slaves the opportunity to buy their freedom. Richard did extra work and bought his freedom in 1780. He changed his name from ‘Negro Richard’ to’ Richard Allen’. Richard qualified as a preacher in 1784 at the Christmas Conference -the founding of the Methodist Church in North America. He was one of two black attendees - neither were allowed to vote- but Richard lead the 5 a.m. services. 1786 Richard became a preacher at St. George’s Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia bur restricted to early morning services. He attracted more black members and was ordered to met them in a separate area for worship. He preached on the commons and had meeting of nearly 50 worshippers. Richard and Absalom Jones resented the segregation so they left the church and formed the Free African Society (FAS) a non-denominational mutual aid society. Richard. In 1787 they purchased a plot of land but it was years before they had a building- now the Mother Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church. Richard wanted to continue in the Methodist practice. on 29th July 1794 the leaders opened the doors of Bethel AME Church. White ministers still had to administer communion. Richard was ordained the first black Methodist minister by Bishop Francis Asbury in 1799. By 1809 it had 457 members, by 1813 it had 1,272. In 1816 Richard united 5 African-American congregations and founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME). 10th April 1816 Richard was elected their first bishop. September 1830 saw black representatives from 7 states convene in Philadelphia at the Bethel AME church for the first Negro Convention. Richard presided over the meeting. The 1830 meeting was the beginning of an organizational effort known as the Negro Convention Movement. From 1787 until his death in 1831 Richard, and his second wife Sarah, operated a station on the Underground Railroad for fugitive slaves. His preaching style was rarely expository or written down. Richard died at home on 26th March 1831. He was buried in the church he founded. In 2002 Molefi Kete Asante named Richard as one of the top 100 Greatest African-Americans. The AME church today (2020) has 2.5 and 3 million members. Sources used Britannica Online Encyclopedia New Georgia Encyclopedia wikipedia

Francis was born in Hamstead Bridge, Staffordshire, England. He became the the first bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the USA. After limited schooling - aged 12 he worked as a blacksmith’s apprentice. By the age of 14 he had been ‘awakened’ in he Christian faith. He attended Methodist meetings where he soon began to preach and soon became a licensed as a preacher. Aged just 21 he was admitted to the Wesleyan Conference.He served 4 years in England as an itinerant preacher. In 1771 John Wesley asked,* Our brethren in America call aloud for help. Who is willing to go over and help them?* Francis stepped forward. October 1771 John landed in Philadelphia. On landing he hit the road so hard he became ill. For the NEXT 45 years he suffered illnesses - colds, coughs ,fevers ,headaches , ulcers and eventually chronic rheumatism.Yet he continued to preach. He covered something like 8,000 km, each year, for 45 years on horseback - in later years he used a carriage. He crossed the Alleghenies mountain range - part of the Appalachian system 60 times. Ezra Tipple, his biographer summed up Francis’ style of sermons with these words Under the rush of his utterances, people sprang to their feet as if summoned to the judgment bar of God. During the Revolutionary war -the War of American Independence (1775-83) he stayed silent. After the war Wesley ordained Thomas Coke as his American Superintendent. The famous Baltimore 'Christmas Conference of 1784 gave birth to the American Methodist Episcopal Church. Coke ordained Francis as deacon, then elder. On December 27th, elected by his peers, he was consecrated as superintendent. Francis in 1785 used the term ‘bishop’. Coke 6 months later returned to England. Francis now held the reins of American Methodism. Francis was very good at organizing. He created districts which would be served by circuit riders- preachers who travelled from church to church to preach and minister. In the late 1700s 95% of Americans lived in places with less than 2,500 inhabitants. Besides preaching and administration he was also against slavery. He petitioned George Washington to enact antislavery legislation. He launched 5 schools and promoted Sunday schools. On his arrival there were 3 meeting places and 300 communicants The growth of the church was largely the result of his strenuous efforts. By the time of his death there were 412 Methodist churches with a membership of 214,235. His efforts did much to assure the continuance of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the USA. For his lasting Legacy and Honours read enclosed sheet. In 1958 his Journal and Letters were published in 3 volumes Sources Christianity Today Britannica Online Encyclopedia SMU Bridwell Library Perkins School of Theology

John was born in Sturton- le Steeple, Nottinghamshire. He was educated at Gainsborough grammar schol and at Christ’s College, Cambridge where he became a fellow in 1594. In 1594 he was also ordained as an Anglican priest. Between 1600-1602 he preached in Lincoln. In 1606 he broke with the Church of England and became minister at Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, to a group of who also had abandoned the C. of E… He then spent 2 years with John Robinson where they helped organize the Separatists in Nottinghamshire. In 1608 the two Johns, with their followers,fled to Amsterdam in Holland. which was known for its religious tolerance. There they all began to study the Bible ardently. John Smyth then took it upon himself to baptize himself. He recited a confession of faith then baptized himself and then baptized all his followers.This brazen act scandalized even those who despised England’s state church. Amsterdam Separatist, Richard Bernard, nicknamed him ‘So-Baptist’ - self baptizer. His followers preferred ’ Christians Baptized on Profession of their Faith’. The derogatory ‘so-baptist’ later shortened to ‘Baptist’, stuck. John insisted that true worship was from the heart and so the liturgy was abandoned - no readings from the Bible John wanted prayer, singing and preaching to be completely spontaneous. This idea stemmed from the belief that worship should be ordered by the Holy Spirit. Church leadership would be just 2 fold- pastor and deacon. In 1609 they came to believe in believer’s baptism- rejecting infant baptism- and they came together to form one of the earliest Baptist churches. He was convinced that believer’s baptism and a free church, gathered by covenant, was foundational for the church. Before his death, in 1612, he wrote a letter of apology, regretting that he had baptized himself. By then Thomas Helwys had returned to England to form the first permanent Baptist church in 1611, I have included, from Amazon, details about *The True story of John Smyth. the Se-baptist, as Told by himself and his Contemporaries (1881) * Sources used Britannica Online Encyclopedia Christian History

Elizabeth Hooton was an English dissenter and one of the earliest preachers in the Religious Society of Friends - the Quakers. She was the first woman to become a Quaker minister. Elizabeth was born in Ollerton, Nottingham, her maiden name was Elizabeth Carrier. She married Oliver Hooten in 1628 and moved to Skegby. By 1646, when George Fox came to Skegby, she had become part of the baptist community. Meeting George was to change her whole life. Initially against the wishes of her husband, she began to organize meetings at their house where the remnants of her Baptist group could hear George’s ministry. This group became known as the Children of Light. She was one of the first to be convinced by the teachings of George Fox. Some sources suggest that Fox actually clarified some of his beliefs by being mentored by Elizabeth. She was one of the original Valiant Sixty. For her beliefs she was beaten, imprisoned, assaulted, whipped and abandoned. In 1651 she was imprisoned for reproving - talking disrespectfully about - a priest. 1652 she ended in York Castle prison for preaching to a congregation at the end of a service. Assaulted in Selston by a church minister who knew she was a Quaker. In the USA she travelled to Boston and Massachusetts. In both places she was abandoned. She petitioned King Charles 11. He gave her a letter authorizing her to settle anywhere in the American colonies and to set up a safe house for Quakers. In Boston she was expelled; in Cambridge she was whipped. Back in England she spent 5 months in jail for disturbing a congregation. Her final voyage was to the West Indies and the USA with George Fox in 1670. In 1672, a week after arriving in Jamaica she died peacefully. *Elizabeth Hooton, a woman of great age, who had travelled much in Truth’s service, and suffered much for it, departed this life. She was well the day before she died, and departed in peace, like a lamb, bearing testimony to Truth at her departure George Fox Sources used wikipedia Quakers of the World

Margaret’ s maiden name was Askew. She married Thomas Fell , a barrister, Justice of the peace and member of Parliament in 1632. He died in 1658. 11 years later she then married George Fox, the founder of the Quakers, in 1669. Margaret was a founder of the Religious Society of Friends. She is popularly remembered as the mother of Quakerism. She was one of the ‘Valiant Sixty’ of the early quaker preachers and missionaries. The Fell’s lived at Swarthmoor Hall. June, 1652, George Fox visited the hall. Over the next few weeks he convinced the household to become Quakers. For the next 6 years the hall became a centre of Quaker activity. Margaret became the unofficial secretary, wrote many epistles, and collected and distributed funds for those on missions. On her husband’s death she retained control of the Hall. It remained a meeting place and haven from persecution, though sometimes raided by government forces in th 1660s. After the Stuart Restoration, as a member of the gentry, she sought to get freedom of conscience in religious matters (1660 and 1662). In 1664 she was arrested for failing to take an oath. She was sentenced to life imprisonment(?) and loss of Swarthmoor Hall. While in prison in Lancaster Castle she wrote religious pamphlets and epistles.* Women’s Speaking Justified’ was her most famous work. In total she wrote, or co-authored - at least 23 works Released in 1668 she married George Fox in 1669. She is then imprisoned for breaking Conventicle Act. George went to USA and on returning in 1673 imprisoned for 2 years. 1975 spent a year together at Swarthmoor Hall. George then spent most of the next 16 years abroad or in London. He died in 1691. Margaret spent her time at the Hall. She died aged 87 on the 23rd April 1702. She lived to see partial tolerance of Quakers in the 1690s. The first part of the novel * The Peaceable Kingdom* by Jan de Hartog looks at Margaret’s meeting with George Fox and her conversion Sources used wikipedia Quaker Tapestry

Peter was the preeminent philosopher of the 12th century and perhaps the greatest logician of the middle ages. In his life time he was equally famous as a poet and a composer, and might have ranked as the preeminent theologian had his ideas earned more converts and less condemnation. In all areas He was brilliant, innovative and controversial. He was a genius and he knew it and made no apologies. His vast knowledge , wit, charm, and even arrogance, drew a generation of Europe’s finest minds to Paris to learn from him. Peter was originally called ‘Pierre le Pallet’ . He belonged to a minor noble family. He decided to give up a career in the military and his inheritance to become an academic. He wandered throughout France to learn and seek knowledge.He studied under Roscellinus Compiegne, a famous French theologian and philosopher. Peter was determined to bring a fresh approach to theology. His teaching career began in Melun and Corbeil to the south of Paris. He return to Paris to teach at Notre-Dame and at Mont-Sainte-Genevieve. It was about this time he met Heloise, the niece of Fulbert, a canon of Notre-Dame. Peter was 37, Helloise 17. He became her tutor, friend, lover and finally husband.Much of their early relationship - the love affair, the elopement to Brittany, the birth of their son Astrolable, a secret marriage followed by the punitive castration of Peter ordered by Fulbert -is recorded in *The Story of My Misfortunes . He lost his prestige as a teacher and left Paris. Heloise entered the convent of Argentuil (1119). The baby, Astrolable, went to his sister’s.He went to the Saint- Denis monastery for 4 years. There he wrote ‘Sic et non’ -Yes or No - 158 questions - arranging conflicting patristic opinions around key doctrinal issues- students were eager to resolve. His second theological work ’ Theologia’Summi Boni’ condemned and burnt following a public trial (1121). Peter briefly confined to Abbey of Saint-Medard. Returned to Saint-Denis and in 1212 released from residency. Humiliated he sought solitude. Given land he built an oratory at Quincy. Students joined him at his retreat. He modified his teaching and wrote ‘Christian Theology’. He accepted election as abbot of Saint-Guildas but unsuccessful at monastic reform. He gave his oratory to the convent where Heloise lived .Together they setup a foundation, confirmed by Innocent 11, with Heloise as its first prioress. Peter as co-founder became involved. He wrote down a number of recommendations - *On the Origin of Nuns and the Rule of Life, Problemata Heloissae, and Expostio in hexaemeron. He prepared a collection of sermons, prayers, a breviary-a book of psalms and 143 hymns. Peter’s approach to theology was part of a new mode of thought that brought questions, debate and order to the fore as the science of scared doctrine. Peter and Heloise are buried together in Paris Sources Facts for Kids Encyclopedia.com Britannica Online Encyclopedia .

Born Lotario dei Conti Segni (Lothar of Seghi) Innocent 111 was one of the most powerful and influential of all the popes. He became pope on the death of Alexander111. He was not the first choice but after just 2 ballots, on the same day the former pope died, he became his successor. He held the post for nearly 18 years. His significance rests upon the quantity of work he accomplished and his power both inside and outside the church. Pope Innocent 111 was a careful and frequent correspondent who wrote more than 5,000 letters to bishops, abbots, kings and others. He was involved in missions, crusades ((Fourth crusade 1202-4), efforts to turn back heresy and the education of the faithful. His work brought him to a position where nearly every crown in Europe- including King John of England and Philip 11 of France - were brought into submission under him. In 1209 Francis of Assisi sought permission from the pope to found a new order. The pope had doubts but following a dream on 16th April, 1210, the Franciscan Order was founded. He was central in supporting the Catholic reforms of ecclesiastical affairs through his decretals ( edits of on doctrine or church law) and the Fourth Lateran Council. 15th November 1215 he opened the council. By its conclusion it issued 77 reformatory decrees. It encouraged the creating of schools and holding clergy to a higher standard than laity. The council also reviewed the nature of the Eucharist. Having been involved with the fourth crusade he was looking forward to the fifth set to start in 1217. He died unexpectedly at Perugia on 16th June 1216. He was buried there until Pope Leo X111 transferred it to Lateran in December 1891 Pope Innocent 111 considered himself God’s representative on earth. More than an ordinary person but less than God. Source wikipedia

Teresa at the age of 21, against her father’s wishes, professed her vows as a Carmelite at the Spanish Convent of the Incarnation at Avilla. The relaxed rule of the Carmelites began to offend her. But 3 years suffering from a prolonged illness forced her to read books on the spiritual life. The ‘Letters’ of Jerome helped - his strong advocacy of the monastic life for women inspired her to begin again. By 1540 she was ready to ready to resume convent life but she was partly paraiyzed. For 12 more years she struggled to achieve that perfect love of In her autobiography* Life* she wrote ’ I voyaged on this tempestuous sea for almost 20 years with these fallings and risings’ Things began to changed when her glance fell on a statute of the wounded Christ.Jesus broke down her defences to reveal the reason for her spiritual exhaustion- her dalliance with the delights of sin. She broke from her past and under went a final conversion (1555).She dreamed of establishing convents where young women could pursue deep lives of prayer and devotion. In 1559 she had the ‘transfixion’ - a cherub pierced her heart with an arrow leaving her with a burning love of God and an unquenchable desire for his presence. This led her into reform. In 1563, with the blessing of Pope Paul 1V she opened the reformed Carmelite convent of St. Joseph in Avila. There the Discalced (shoeless) Carmelites would live under her new strict rules. Her reforms required utter withdrawal so the nuns could meditate on divine law and through a prayful life of penance, exercise what she termed ‘our vocation of reparation’ for the sins of humankind. She convinced John of the Cross to join her in the work. Her success as an administrator and reformer resulted in her founding 16 monasteries. Rest,indeed! I need no rest; what I need is crosses. She died, exhausted, on 4th October 1582 Yet it is her gift of spiritual direction, practiced personally with nuns and publicly in her writings for which she is known today. She had to be persuaded to put pen to paper- the results were ’ Life’ her autobiography, ‘Way of Perfection’ - practical advice for her nuns, and ‘Interior Castle’ - a theological treatise. Her legacy can be seen in Music, paintings, sculpture, literature , drama and film. Her life and writings restored many of the religious institutions of Spain. The Spanish parliament named her the Patroness of Spain. In 1622 Pope Gregory XV proclaimed her a saint Teresa of Avila was a major figure in the 16th century movement of Roman Catholic reform. Differences between Discaled Carmelites and Carmelites (See enclosed material for more information) Sources used Church History Britannica Online Encyclopedia wikipedia Great Leaders of the Christian Church Woodbridge contribution by Caroline T. Marshall

Saint Thomas Aquinas was recognized as the greatest theologian of his age. He was one of the most influential medieval thinkers of Scholasticism and the father of the Thomistic school of theology. Before he was born a holy hermit predicted to his mother that her son would enter the ‘Order of Friars Preachers’ and become a great learner and achieve unequaled sanctity. Aged 5 he was sent to the Abbey of Monte Cassino. Aged 13 the political climate forced him to return to Naples. He stayed 5 years at the Benedictine house. In about 1239 he went to the local university. In 1243 he secretly joined an order of Dominican monks, receiving the habit a year later. When his parents found out they were so annoyed at his betrayal they held him captive -kidnapped him- for a year in the fortress of San Giovanni at Rocca Secca. On his release in 1245 he returned to the order and stayed with them until 1252. Ordained in 1250 he then earned his doctorate in Theology. he was an exemplary scholar. On completing his education he devoted his time to travelling, writing, teaching, public speaking and preaching. Institutes yearned to benefit from the wisdom of ‘The Christian Apostle’. For his ‘Theology and Philosophy’ please read relevant paragraphs. He wrote nearly 60 known works. Handwritten copies were distributed to libraries across Europe! (Read ‘Major Works’) During the feast of Saint Nicholas in 1273 he had a mystical vision which made him think writing was unimportant. Father Reginald of Piperno urged him to write but he never wrote again. In 1274 Thomas decided to walk to the Second Council in Lyon, France. He fell ill on the way and stayed at the Cistercirn monastery of Fossanova in Italy .He died at the monastery on March 7th 1274. If the Lord wishes to take me away, it is better that I be found in a religious house than in the dwelling of a layperson. *Thomas provided the Roman church with reasoned statements of its interpretation of Christian faith. H. Dermot McDonald Thomas was canonized by Pope John XX11 in1323. Sources used Life, Philosophy & Theology- Biography Great Leaders of the Christian Faith Woodbridge contirbution by H. Dermot McDonald

Ignatius was born Inigo Lopez to a noble and wealthy Basque family. He went to the Spanish court to become a page. He joined the army. In the battle with the Frehch for the town of Pamplona, Spain, he was hit by a cannon ball the size of a fist. The 5 feet 2 inch Inigo five was helped back to Loyola by French soldiers. he underwent surgery but he was left with a limp in his right leg. During the 7 weeks of recovery he began reading spiritual books and visions. By the time he had recuperated he had resolved to live a life of austerity to do penance for his sins. In February 1522 he left for Montserrat, a pilgrim site in N.E. Spain. He confessed his sins and hung up his sword and dagger, donned sack cloth and lived like a beggar. He attend mass daily and spent 7 hours in prayer, often in a cave near Manresa. There he sketched the fundamentals for Spiritual Exercises - a guide to convert the heart and mind to a closer following of Jesus Christ After a pilgrim a to the Holy Land he headed for Europe. He went to Alcala (now Barcelona) to study for 12 years where he acquired followers. Still not ordained he became distrusted by the church hierarchy. 1534 Ignatuis and his followers took vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. 1537, in Venice, they were ordained. 1540, gained Pope’s approval and named Society of Jesus. 1541 Ignatius, aged 50, elected superior general of his new order. The vision and disciplines of the * Jesuits* caught the imagination of Europe. These zealous monks were successful in checking the forces of Protestantism in parts of Europe. They gained a wide spread reputation for their fanatical willingness to do almost anything to advance the cause of the Roman Catholic church. Ignatius’s Spiritual Exercises have been in constant use for nearly 500 years. The Constitution of the Society of Jesus was probably the most important work of his later years. There is no doubt that friend and foe alike saw Ignatius and the Jesuits as a key factor in reviving and strengthening the Roman church after 1550. In 2013 Jorge Mario Bergoglio of Argentina became Pope Francis, the first Jesuit to be elected pope. Sources used Christianity Today Great Leaders of the Christian Church Woodbridge contribution from Robert D. Linder Britannica Online Encyclopedia wikipedia

John Hus or Huss was a pre-reformation reformer. In 1360 the king of Bohemia (similar in size to modern Czechoslovakia) invited Conrad of Waldhausen to come and preach to the corrupt church. From that time there was a national reform movement in Bohemia.John stood firmly within that tradition. John lived during the time of the Great Schism when Europe was divided between 2 or 3 Popes. It was the Council of Constance which brought the Schism to an end and resulted in John’s martyrdom at the stake. John studied theology at the University of Prague. He became a preacher at the Bethlehem Chapel in Prague. In his church the services were conducted in Czech and not Latin, the Bible readings and sermons were also in the common language. He preached actively against the worst abuses of the Roman church of his day-the low morality of the clergy, the Bible read in Latin, sale of indulgences, Pope infallibility. (See The Movarian Church for the full 4 main factors). His criticisms and call for reforms were seen as a stumbling block to reconciling the divided Church. He was excommunicated. Promised safe conduct by Sigismund, the Holy Roman Emperor, he went to the Council of Constance. He was imprisoned (1414-8). He was accused of being a Wycliffe. He was not allowed to defend himself or his beliefs. He refused to recant his beliefs and was called a heretic. On 6th July 1415 he was burned at the stake. Aftermath - Hussite Wars. The Hussites won 4 crusades against them ( Read how his followers rebelled) John was an important member of an ongoing movement which would become a national movement of reform. Martin Luther, many years later, came across some of John Hus sermons. I was overwhelmed with astonishment. I could not understand for what cause they had burnt so great a man, who explained the Scriptures with so much gravity and skill. Sources used Great leaders of the Christian Church edited by Woodbridge contribution from A.N.S. Lane Christian history wikipedia

Thomas Becket is one of the most famous men in English History. Henry11 asked, ‘Who will rid me of this traitor?’ Four of his knights took at his word and went to Canterbury Cathedral and in front of the high altar murdered Thomas. Henry 11 and Thomas had been friends. Henry 11 had appointed him to be his royal chancellor. He performed his duties very capably and became the king’s trusted servant and friend. On the death of of Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury Henry11 appointed Thomas his successor. He believed Thomas would serve the state as well as the church. On appointment Thomas changed his allegiance and his life style. He abandoned his worldly materialistic ways and became a saintly soul living a disciplined , pious and austere life. He steadfastly resisted all efforts to impose the royal will on the church. Discord developed over how the church and state dealt with clerics convicted of crimes. Following a quarrel Thomas, the Archbishop of Canterbury, was forced into exile in France (1164-1170). On his return to England in 1170 he met with his death. Henry11 when he heard the news was distraught - what he had said in anger he now regretted. Henry was forced to do penance because there was such an outpouring of rage from the public Thomas was sainted in 1173 and became the most popular saint in English History. His Legacy is enormous. In the ‘Canterbury Tales’ by Chaucer a group of pilgrims are on their way to worship at his shrine. (Read Legacy) Sources used Great Leaders of the Christian Church - Woodbridge contribution from Robert G. Clouse wipedia BBC History

Phoebe Palmer was an American Methodist evangelist and writer who promoted the doctrine of Christian perfection. She is considered to be one of the founders of the Holiness movement withing Methodist Christianity. Phoebe was born Phoebe Worrall in New York City. Her father Henry was a a devout Methodist who during the Wesleyan Revival in England had a religious conversion before immigrating to the U.S.A… Phoebe’s mother was Dorethea Wade Worrall. Phoebe married Walter Palmer, a physician and devout Methodist in 1827. They became interested in the writings of John Wesley, especially his doctrine of Christian perfection - a belief that a Christian can live a life free of sin. 26th July 1837 Phoebe experienced an ‘entire sanctification’. Other members of her family later also experienced this ‘sanctification’. They felt they should teach others about how to have it for themselves. Phoebe often preached at Methodist church and camp meetings. Palmer’s sister, Sarah Lankford, began having weekly meetings with Methodist women. 2 years later Phoebe was leading these Tuesday meetings. They became referred to as the Tuesday Meeting for the Promotion of Holiness. They always had the meetings at someone’s home. From 1839 men were also allowed to attend. These meetings eventually influenced the Methodist Church nationwide. The Palmer’s worked as a team and received invitations to speak at churches, conferences and camps. Phoebe was better known than her husband Walter. Sources wikipedia Britannis Online Encyclopedia

Ulrich Zwingli has been called the third man of the Reformation; third behind Martin Luther and John Kalvin. Ulrich was a scholar, priest and reformist. Ulrich born a couple of months after Martin Ulrich graduated from the University of Basel in 1506. and became the parish priest in Glarus. From the beginning he took his priestly duties seriously. The feeling of responsibility motivated him to show an increasing interest in the Bible. He bought a copy of Erasmus’s New Testament Latin translation He began to teach himself Greek and bought Erasmus Greek N.T. and started to memorize long passages. Privately he started to challenge the customs of medieval Christendom he thought were unbiblical. Ulrich moved to Zurich in 1518 just a year after Martin Luther began the Reformation in Germany with his famous 99Theses. Ulrich had his own equivalent the 67 conclusions. He struggled with celibacy. He secretly married in 1522. In January 1523 he was ready to share his ideas. Before the Zurich City Council he gave the what is now called the FIrst Disputation. The second Disputation happened in October. The reforms which followed were the removal of images of Jesus and Mary, saints removed from churches, the Bible to have preeminence. In 1524 he was publicly married. In 1525 he and others convinced the city to abolish mass and replace it with a simple service that included the Lord’s Supper but only as a symbolic memorial. Under the leadership of Ulrich the Swiss Confederation was creating a parallel movement to what Martin Luther was creating in Germany. The German Prince Philip of Hesse saw the potential of an alliance between Ulrich and Martin. In 1529 they met at his castle - now known as the Colloquay of Marlburg . The two movements agreed on 14 points of doctrine, the 15th point they disagreed over the Lord’s Supper. Luther preached consubstantiation - actual body and blood of Christ, Ulrich said it was only representative and memorial. It was evident no alliance was going to work. Ulrich died two years later in a battle defending Zurich against Catholic forces. Under Heinrich Bullinger, Ulrich’s successor, this unique branch of the Protestant Reformation continued to blossom.

Thomas Cranmer was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1533- 1556. He was the archbishop responsible for successfully getting HenryV111 's divorce from his first wife , Catherine of Aragon. (He also married his next 5 wives.)Henry then declared himself Supreme head of the English church- Thomas became the first Protestant Archbishop of England. (For this piece of work iI have used two main sources Great Leaders of the Christian Church (GL of CC) Britannica Online Encyclopedia (B.O.E) Thomas was born on 2nd July 1489 in Nottinghamshire. He went to Jesus college, Cambridge and received a fellowship in 1523. Early on he rejected the claims that the Pope had supremacy over the ruler of each country. (read Cranmer the Erastian - GL of CC). In August 1529 a plague known as the sweating sickness swept the country and Thomas went to stay at his father’s house in Waltham, Essex. HenryV111 was visiting the area and two of the king’s councillors met Thomas - they discussed the future divorce. The king called Thomas for an interview. Thomas agreed to create a treatise. (Read* Entry into Royal Service* - B.O.E.) When William Warham, the aged archbishop of Canterbury died in August 1532, a replacement was needed. Stephen Gardiner, the obvious candidate was out of favour. Thomas, now chief adviser on ecclesiastical matters, was chosen. In March 1533 he was consecrated and instituted at Canterbury. In May he declared the marriage to Catherine of Argon void and pronounced the marriage to Anne Boleyn valid. He did as he was told with regards to the other marriages that followed. With regard to church matters he created the Book of Common Prayer in the language of the people - English replaced Latin. He provided the church with one book containing all services for daily, Sunday and occasional use, as well as a Book of Psalms. In the year Henry V111 died, 1517, and Edward V1 became king,Thomas published a Book Of Homilies which was designed to meet the notorious grievance that the unreformed clergy did not preach enough. He was also influential in fixing the doctrinal anchors of the reformed Church of England. The 42 articles of !553 became the 39 articles in 1571. These articles anchor the church in the scriptures , the creeds and Reformed catholicity. On the death of Edward V! and the short 9 day ‘reign’ of Lady Jane Grey - who Thomas had supported Mary1 became queen. Mary was Roman Catholic and wanted Thomas to recant his beliefs on oath. Refusal meant he would be martyred. He briefly agreed but was still burnt at the stake- March 21st 1556 - he made sure his right hand which had signed the paper was first in the fire. Thomas was the leader of the English Reformation and was responsible for establishing the basic structures of the Church of England. He died as a martyr for the English form of R The Britannica Online Encyclopedia article on Thomas Cramner is excellent. .

John Knox was an ordained minister successively for 3 Christian churches - Roman Catholic, Church of England and Church of Scotland. And for 19 months he was a galley slave. John in turn became a tutor, preacher at St. Andrews, galley-slave in French bondage and chaplain to the young English king- Edward VI. In the 1540s John came under the influence of converted reformers… He became the bodyguard for fiery Protestant preacher George Wishart. In 1546 Cardinal David Beaton had Wishart arrested, tried ,strangled and burned. 3 months later Beaton was murdered by Protestant conspirators. John was not ‘privy’ to the murder but did approve of it. In 1547 the occupants of St. Andrew Castle, including John, were put under siege. Some occupants were imprisoned; John was sent to the galleys as a slave. Released after 19 months he spent 5 years in England where his reputation for preaching quickly blossomed. During the reign of Mary Tudor (1553-8),when England reverted back to being Roman Catholic, John was exiled in Europe. Whilst there he helped originate the Puritan tradition and worked on an English version of the Bible. In 1559 he returned to Scotland to be proclaimed an outlaw by the Roman Catholic queen regent. The English ambassador, Randolph said, The voice of one man is able in one hour to put more life in us than 500 trumpets continually blustering our ears. Queen Mary arrived in Scotland in 1561. . When Mary was contemplating Don Car;os of Spain John sounded the Protestant alarm bell. John was charged with treason but the privy Council refused to convict him. Aged 50 John married 17 year old Margaret Stewart a distant relative of the queen - that completed the queen’s ‘cup of bitterness’. The Reformation finally came to Scotland. John laid down the right foundations. He aimed at support for the poor, equality of men before God and the advancement of education by having a school in every parish. He and his fellow ministers went to great pains to establish sound doctrine. Parliament ordered John and 5 colleagues to write a Confession of faith, the First Book of Discipline and *The Book of Common Order * . He ended up as preacher in Edinburgh church where he wrote History of the Reformation of Religion in Scotland His power as a preacher lay in his capacity to fuse reason with emotion and to be a passionate logican in the pulpit. He was considered one of the most powerful preachers of his day. John was a minister of the Christian gospel who advocated a violent but bloodless revolution.He was a key figure in the formation of modern Scotland. Sources used *Great Leaders of the Christian Church editor Woodbridge content by J.D. Douglas Britannica Online Encyclopedia Christianity Today

Blaise Pascal is held in high esteem in France. The Biblotheque nationale in Paris guards none of its manuscripts more jealously than those of Blaise. Though he died before he was 40, and suffered continually from ill health, he won fame in the 17th century that is still increasing today. At the age of just 16 he began contributing to geometry, physics, applied mechanics and mathematical theory that were of great importance. By some he is regarded as the ‘father’ of computers! Blaise became a devout and committed Christian. (Read Conversion 1 and 2). He was always aware of his sinful nature and knew he needed the grace of the Jesus. He wrote * L*es Provinciales** which Voltaire described as the work of genius. 18 essays regarded as brilliant irony and satire He planned to write an* Apology of the Christian Religion*. He had prepared all the notes- there were nearly 1,000 fragmentary writings, but he died. It was published as* Pensees . Apparently it is such high quality that it can be placed alongside such great works as Augustine’s Confessions. In his youth he proved to be a a genius in scientist. As a born again Christian Blaise , who loved the truth above all else, looked beyond truth to the source of truth, even to God himself, the source of wisdom and truth. Sources used Great Leaders of the Christian Faith editor Woodbridge contribution from Peter Toon Christianity Today

John Calvin was the Reformations supreme Bible teacher. Young John had originally planned a life of of quiet scholarship but a ‘sudden conversion’- his phrase- at age of 20 led him to want God’s will rather than his own. Born a French man he found himself exiled in Geneva, Switzerland for most of his adult life. With maximum public exposure he became a preacher and teacher of the Bible, pastor. reformer, theologian and universal Christian counselor. In the book *Great Leaders of the Christian Church James I. Packer lays a very sound foundation. He writes about Calvin the man, his will. sudden conversion and called to Geneva and Calvinism in Europe (See notes). He also covers John’s Geneva, theology and knowledge of God. John developed hie theology in his biblical commentaries as well as his sermons and treaties but the most concise expression of his views are found in his magnum opus * Institutes of the Christian Religion* It was and is Protestantism’ s classic statement. Over the years the book grew! Edition 1 was 6 chapters (1536), edition 2 - 3 times larger (1539), edition 3 added new material (1543) and finally edition 4 - consisted of 4 books of 80 chapters each (1559) Book 1 God the Creator, bk.2 Redeemer in Christ. Bk.3 Receiving the Grace of Christ through the Holy Spirit bk.4 Society of Christ or the Church The theology of John Calvin has been more influential in both the development of the system of belief now known as Calvinism and in Protestant thought more generally. Anchored in Geneva John became an international figure in his own life time. The modern world can hardly be understood without some knowledge of Calvinism. Sources used wikipedia Great Leaders of the Christian Church edited by Woodbridge Christianity Today What is calvinism? by John Piper Note The wikipedia site has a fantastic amount of information about John and Calvanism.

John Owen was an English Nonconformist church leader, theologian and academic administrator at the University of Oxford, For a very brief time he was an MP for Oxford University, sitting the First Protectorate Parliament (1654/5) of Oliver Cromwell (disqualified because of his clerical vocation). John was of Welsh descent but was born in Stadhampton, Oxfordshire. He was educated at Queen’s College Oxford (B.A. 1632 M.A. 1635). In 1637 he was driven out of Oxford by Laud’s new laws and became chaplain and tutor to first Sir Robert Dormer , then Lord Lovelace. Between 1642-9 we have the English Civil War. John sided with the Parliamentarians and Cromwell. In doing so he lost the prospect of succeeding to his Welsh Royalist uncle’s fortune. Appointed rector of Fordham, Essex in 1642. In 1644 he married Mary Rooke (they had 11 children but 10 died in infancy). In 1646 he became vicar at Coggeshall after preaching a notable sermon before parliament. His preaching led to him being attached to Cromwell. He became chaplain to Cromwell’s army and accompanied him to Ireland and Scotland (1649-50). He was dean of Christ Church Cathedral (1651-60). He was also appointed vice -chancellor at Oxford (1652-7) . 1654 elected MP for Oxford. He opposed plans for Cromwell to be offered the crown. 1660 he abandoned politics altogether with the Restoration of the monarchy -Charles 11 now on the throne. On the return of Charles 11 he joined nearly 2,000 other Puritan ministers to leave the ministry of the national church. In 1660 he became pastor at a Congrgational church in London (1660-1683). He devoted his time to the production of an array of top-class theological literature. These helped secure his reputation as a great British theologian. Among his works are historical treaties on religion, studies of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit and defences of Noncomformist or Puritan views. John died on 4th September 1683 and is buried in Bunhill fields. For the fullest description of John Owen, by someone who knew him, read Robert Asty’s written in 1721, (Read Theologian’s theologian) What is the application and relevance of John to our lives today? John serves as a reminder that Christianity is not to isolated from the world. He prayed, preached and wrote about the glory of God, and for a time served as a aide for Cromwell, and MP. As Christians we can serve God in any position that he placed us in society, community or family. Sources used *Great Leaders of the Christian Church * edited by Woodbridge contribution from Peter Toon wikipedia Britannica Online Encyclopedia Lessons from the life of John Owen

Philipp was a German Lutheran theologian who essentially found what woudl becme known as Pietism. He was later named ‘Father of Pietism’. After a brief time at the grammar school in Colmar he moved on to Strasbourg in 1651. He studied philology, history and philosophy. He became the private tutor to the princes Christian and Charles of the Electorate of the Palantinate. He also lectured on philology and history at the university. From 1659-62 he visited various universities and commenced a study of Heraldry - which he pursued throughout his life. He returned to Strasbourg where he was appointed preacher without and pastoral duties. in 1666 he became the chief pastor in the Lutheran church at Frankfurt. A prolific writer here he published his two main worksIn his most famous work Pia Desideria (1675) Philipp assessed contemporary orthodoxy’s weakness and advanced proposals for reform. He gave 6 proposals. (Read ‘Theology’ paragraph to see 6 proposals and also ’ Heart desire’). In 1680 he wrote Allgemeine Gottesgelehrtheit and began the form of pastoral work which resulted in the movement called Pietism. In 1686 accepted invitation to the first chaplaincy at Dresden. In 1691 he became rector of St. Nicholas in Berlin with the title of counsellor of the Marcher Consistory. Philippe died aged 70, on 5 th February 1705. After Philipp the leadership of German Pietism passed to August Hermann Francke. Pietism emphasized personal faith against the main Lutheran church’s perceived stress on doctrine and theology over Christian living. ( See notes) Sources wikipedia Christianity Today Britannica Online Encyclopedia